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Active vocabulary
concern турбота, завдання
to inflict pain завдавати болю
to suffer страждати
intraspecies behavior внутрішньовидове поводження
interspecies behaviour міжвидове поводження
competing notions конкуруючі поняття
contributions внески (у науку)
seems to appear очевидно, з'являються
is put forth запропоновано, висунуте
controversial суперечливий
...as a way of coping with як один із засобів компромісу з...
...ritualized behaviors to avoid or terminate aggression ритуалізоване поводження з метою запобігання або припинення агресії
to evade ухилятися
by signaling submission шляхом показу
ferociousness лютість, дикість
any built-in signals for limiting or preventing aggression будь-який убудований сигнал, обмежуючий або запобігаючий агресії
it has apparently lost much of its symbolic meaning вона (посмішка) безумовно втратила більшу частину свого символічного значення
territorial invasion вторгнення на територію
regardless незалежно від
universal drive загальний потяг
death wish бажання смерті
scapegoating пошук “козла відпущення”
catharsis катарсис, очищення
socially acceptable соціально прийнятий
tension-reducing зменьшуючий напругу
frustration фрустрація, розчарування
the presence of aggression inevitably indicates the presence of frustration somewhere in the individual's environment наявність агресії неминуче вказує на присутність розчарування десь в оточенні людини
have succeeded in remaining virtually free from violence успішно залишилися практично вільні від насильства
...man is capable of keeping that instinct under relatively tight control людина здатна втримувати цей інстинкт під відносно міцним контролем
to exhibit проявляти, виявляти
inhibited стримувати, гасити
no single set of variables не існує єдиного набору змінних
to maintain підтримувати
speculate роздумувати, міркувати
noninstinctual environmental factors неінстинктивні фактори
Text.
Aggression
by Brenda B. Bankart and C.Peter Bankart
We live in a culture that has come to accept that aggression and violence can occur in almost all aspects of life. Therefore, the study of aggression is one of the concerns for modern psychology.
Aggression remains one of the most challenging areas of study because of the elusiveness of an adequate definition of the term. Some researchers have applied it to any act that inflicts pain or suffering on another individual; others feel that a proper definition must include some notion of intent to do harm. Still others use a situational definition, so that what might be described as aggression in one context might not be considered such in others. There is also controversy over whether aggression should be regarded as an intraspecies behavior or whether it includes interspecies behaviour. This conflict over how aggression should be conceptualized has been partly responsible for the development of a number of competing notions of its origins and nature Animal Aggression. One of the most important contributions to the study of aggression has been made by the ethologists. The subject has been of particular interest to them because aggression occurs frequently in natural settings and seems to appear in almost all species, from insects to primates.
Konrad Lorenz, perhaps the best-known of the ethologists concerned with aggression, particularly within species, has proposed that aggressive behavior is largely instinctual in all social species, including man. His view is put forth in his controversial book On Aggression, 1966. One of the most interesting aspects of Lorenz's position is the suggestion that as a way of coping with powerful aggressive instincts, most species have developed highly symbolic or ritualized behaviors to avoid or terminate aggression. Most animals can evade attack or stop a battle before any serious harm is done by signaling submission. Lorenz has suggested that man may be unique in the ferociousness of his aggressive behavior because he alone among all of the aggressive species does not have any built-in signals for limiting or preventing aggression. Although the smile may have developed for this purpose originally, it has apparently lost much of its symbolic meaning.
Another ethologist, Robert Ardrey, has contributed a second instinctual view of aggression in man and other animals. His book The Territorial Imperative, 1966, argued that aggression is the natural result of territorial invasion. Ardrey noted that most wars are fought over territorial rights and that the defender of a territory is usually more successful than the invader, regardless of the size and experience of the combatants.
Psychoanalytic Theory. The psychoanalytic movement has also largely accepted the view that aggression is instinctual. Freud postulated that there are two instincts: eros, the life instinct, thanatos, the death instinct. Thanatos represents the universal drive to return to the earth; suicide is the ultimate expression of thanatos, but its usual expression is only indirect.
When the death wish is directed toward other individuals, it is called displacement. This concept is often used to explain various social phenomena, such as scapegoating and the behavior of the Nazis before and during World War II. Displacement refers to the direct channeling of aggressive energies toward a specific group of persons or objects.
When aggressive impulses are not directly channeled, the result is described as catharsis. This indirect expression of the aggressive instinct is said to explain why people engage in athletics, watch aggressive movies and television, and kick doors and car tires rather than other people or themselves. Catharsis provides a safe, socially acceptable, and tension-reducing means of dealing with thanatos.
Frustration-Aggression Theory. Closely allied with the psychoanalytic concept of aggression is the hypothesis proposed by John Bollard, Neal Miller, and their colleagues in the late 1930s. This view suggests that aggression is more than mere instinct; it is the instinctual response to frustration, and the presence of aggression inevitably indicates the presence of frustration somewhere in the individual's environment. Dollard and Miller conducted a number of experiments demonstrating aggression as an unlearned response to a wide variety of frustrating situations.
The frustration-aggression hypothesis was modified in the 1960s by Leonard Berkowitz, who found that aggression occurs even in the absence of observable frustration and that the form it takes depends upon previous experience. While this hypothesis still states that frustration is a primary determinant of aggression, frustration is no longer considered a necessary or sufficient precursor for aggression.
The data generated from the research on the frustration-aggression hypothesis eventually led to the view that aggression need not be regarded as entirely instinctual. Because some cultures have succeeded in remaining virtually free from violence, and because some individuals seem to be able to lead relatively nonaggressive lives, it would appear that if aggression is instinctual, man is capable of keeping that instinct under relatively tight control.
Social Learning Theory. In response to these challenges to the instinctual view, social learning theory, particularly as propounded by Richard Walters and Albert Bandura, has concentrated on how aggressive behaviors are learned and under what conditions aggression is exhibited and inhibited. The main point here is that no single set of variables, such as territoriality, thanatos, or frustration, can adequately explain all aggressive behavior. Bandura and Walters have maintained that it is more instructive to study an individual's learning history than it is to speculate on the nature of instinctive drives. They pose such questions as: Has the individual been rewarded for aggressive behavior in the past? Has a parent used primarily physically aggressive punishments in training a child? Does aggression attract attention from a child's parents or teachers?
The basic contribution of social learning theory to the study of aggression has been its focus on noninstinctual environmental factors. By concentrating on the differences between the learning and the performance of aggressive acts, experiments found that while performance usually occurs in the presence of frustration, learning of aggressive behavior usually does not involve any frustration. Perhaps more importantly, however, the social learning theorists have shown how important is to both the acqisition and the performance of aggressive behaviour.
Answer the following questions
1. In what asoects of life can .aggression occue?
2. What remains one of the most challenging areas of study?
3. In what situation the term aggression can be used?
4. Is there any controversy over whether aggression should be regarded an intraspecies behavior?
5. What was the conflict over how aggression should be conceptualized responsible for?
6. Who made one of most impotent contributions to the study of aggression?
7. What information can be found in the book “On Aggression’’ by Konrad Lorenz?
8. What was another ethologist Robert Ardrey famous for? What did he write?
9. Who has accepted the view that aggression is instinctual?
10. What is catharsis?
11. Who has suggested that aggression is more than mere instinct? What is it?
12. Who found that aggression occurs even in the absence of observable frustration?
13. Who modified the frustration- aggression hypothesis in the 1960s?
14. What is social learning theory? What is its confribution to the study of aggression?
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